Total Probability, Independence and Bayes' theorem

02/08/2021

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Outline

  • The following topics will be covered in this lecture:

    • Multiplication Rule
    • Total Probability Rule
    • Independence
    • Bayes' theorem

Intersections of Events and Multiplication Rule

  • Recall that last time we discussed the probability of the intersection of two events.
  • Let us suppose that \( A \) and \( B \) are events for which \( P(A)\neq 0 \) and \( P(B)\neq 0 \).
  • Using the definition of conditional probability \[ P(B|A)=\frac{P(A\cap B)}{P(A)} \]
  • We can solve for the intersection of events \[ P(A \cap B) = P(B\vert A) P(A) \]
  • Similarly, from the same definition of conditional probability we have \[ P(A|B)=\frac{P(A\cap B)}{P(B)} \]
  • which implies that \[ P(A \cap B) = P(A\vert B) P(B) \]
  • We can provide a formula known as the multiplication rule
    Probability of an Intersection: \[ P(A \cap B) = P(B\vert A) P(A) = P(A\vert B) P(B) \]

Intersections of Events – example

  • EXAMPLE: The probability that the first stage of a numerically controlled machining operation for high-rpm pistons meets specifications is 0.90.

  • Failures are due to metal variations, fixture alignment, cutting blade condition, vibration, and ambient environmental conditions.

  • Given that the first stage meets specifications, the probability that a second stage of machining meets specifications is 0.95.

  • Question: Using the multiplication rule,

    \[ P(A \cap B) = P(B\vert A) P(A) = P(A\vert B) P(B) \] what is the probability that both stages meet specifications?

    • Let the events be \( A= \)"first stage meets specifications" and \( B= \)"second stage meets specifications".
    • The probability requested is \( P(A \text{ and }B) \)
    • where \( P(A)=0.90 \)
    • and \( P(B|A)=0.95 \)
    • Using the multiplication rule, we get \[ \begin{align} P(A \cap B) &= P(B\vert A) P(A) \\ &= 0.95(0.90) = 0.855 \end{align} \]
    • Note: although it is also true that \( P(A \cap B) = P(A | B)P(B) \), the information provided in the problem does not match this second formulation.

Total Probability Rule

  • So far we have described probabilities of events in terms of the probabilities of union or intersections of events, i.e.:
    • Addition rule: \( P(A\cup B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A\cap B) \);
    • Conditional probability: \( P(A\vert B) = \frac{P(A\cap B)}{P(B)} \); and the
    • Multiplication rule: \( P(A\cap B) = P(A\vert B)P(B) \).
  • What if we want to recover the probability of single event \( P(B) \) given several conditions?
Partitioning an event into two mutually exclusive subsets

Courtesy of Montgomery & Runger, Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers, 7th edition

  • For any event \( B \), we can write \( B \) as the union of the part of \( B \) in \( A \) and the part of \( B \) in \( A′ \). That is \[ B=(A\cap B)\cup(A'\cap B) \]
  • Because \( A \) and \( A′ \) are mutually exclusive
    • \( A \cap B \) and \( A' \cap B \) are mutually exclusive
  • So we can use the addition rule for mutually exclusive events as \[ \begin{align} P(B)&=P((A\cap B)\cup(A'\cap B))\\ &=P(A\cap B)+P(A'\cap B)\end{align} \]
  • Using the multiplication rule on each term of \( P(B) \) we get \[ P(B)=P(B|A)P(A)+P(B|A')P(A') \]
  • Total Probability Rule (Two Events) For any two events \( A \) and \( B \)
  • \[ \begin{align} P(B)=P(B\cap A)+P(B\cap A')=P(B|A)P(A)+P(B|A')P(A') \end{align} \]

Total Probability Rule – example

chip contamination example

Courtesy of Montgomery & Runger, Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers, 7th edition

  • Suppose that in semiconductor manufacturing, the probability is 0.10 that a chip subjected to high levels of contamination during manufacturing has a product failure.
  • The probability is 0.005 that a chip not subjected to high contamination levels during manufacturing has a product failure.
  • In a particular production run, 20% of the chips are subject to high levels of contamination.
  • Question: using the total probability rule \[ \begin{align} P(B)=P(B\cap A)+P(B\cap A')=P(B|A)P(A)+P(B|A')P(A'), \end{align} \]
  • what is the total probability of a chip failure?
  • Lets denote the events be \( F= \)"product fails" and \( H= \)"chip is exposed to high levels of contamination".
  • From the table we can extract some pieces of information
    • \( P(H)=0.2 \) and \( P(H')=0.8 \)
    • \( P(F|H)=0.10 \) and \( P(F|H')=0.005 \)
  • We can use the total probability rule on \( P(F) \) in terms of conditional probabilities \[ P(F)=P(F|H)P(H)+P(F|H')P(H') \]
  • Then the probability that a product fails is \[ P(F)=0.10(0.20)+0.005(0.80)=0.024 \]

Total Probability Rule (Multiple Events)